6.1.1 shift

Luckily, the shell provides a way around this problem. The command shift performs the function of:

1=$2
2=$3
...

for every argument, regardless of how many there are. If you supply a numeric argument to shift , it will shift the arguments that many times over; for example, shift 3 has this effect:

1=$4
2=$5
...

This leads immediately to some code that handles a single option (call it -o ) and arbitrarily many arguments:

if [[ $1 = -o ]]; then
    
process the -o option

    shift
fi


normal processing of arguments...

After the if construct, $1 , $2 , etc., are set to the correct arguments.

We can use shift together with the programming features we have seen so far to implement simple option schemes. However, we will need additional help when things get more complex. The getopts built-in command, which we will introduce later, provides this help.

shift by itself gives us enough power to implement the -N option to the highest script we saw in Chapter 4, Basic Shell Programming (Task 4-1). Recall that this script takes an input file that lists artists and the number of albums you have by them. It sorts the list and prints out the N highest numbers, in descending order. The code that does the actual data processing is:

filename=$1
howmany=${2:-10}
sort -nr $filename | head -$howmany

Our original syntax for calling this script was highest filename [- N ] , where N defaults to 10 if omitted. Let's change this to a more conventional UNIX syntax, in which options are given before arguments: highest [- N ] filename . Here is how we would write the script with this syntax:

if [[ $1 = -+([0-9]) ]]; then
    howmany=$1
    shift
elif [[ $1 = -* ]]; then
    print 'usage: highest [-N] filename'
    return 1
else
    howmany="-10"
fi
filename=$1
sort -nr $filename | head $howmany

In this code, the option is considered to be supplied if $1 matches the pattern -+([0-9]) . This uses one of the Korn shell's regular expression operators, which we saw in Chapter 4 . Notice that we didn't surround the pattern with quotes (even double quotes); if we did, the shell would interpret it literally, not as a pattern. This pattern means "A dash followed by one or more digits." If $1 matches, then we assign it to the variable howmany .

If $1 doesn't match, we test to see if it's an option at all, i.e., if it matches the pattern - * . If it does, then it's invalid; we print an error message and exit with error status. If we reach the final ( else ) case, we assume that $1 is a filename and treat it as such in the ensuing code. The rest of the script processes the data as before.

We can extend what we have learned so far to a general technique for handling multiple options. For the sake of concreteness, assume that our script is called bob and we want to handle the options -a , -b , and -c :

while [[ $1 = -* ]]; do
    case $1 in 
	-a ) 

process option -a

 ;;
	-b ) 

process option -b

 ;;
	-c ) 

process option -c

 ;;
	*  ) print 'usage: bob [-a] [-b] [-c] args...'
	     return 1
    esac
    shift
done


normal processing of arguments...

This code checks $1 repeatedly as long as it starts with a dash ( - ). Then the case construct runs the appropriate code depending on which option $1 is. If the option is invalid - i.e., if it starts with a dash but isn't -a , -b , or -c  - then the script prints a usage message and returns with an error exit status. After each option is processed, the arguments are shifted over. The result is that the positional parameters are set to the actual arguments when the while loop finishes.

Notice that this code is capable of handling options of arbitrary length, not just one letter (e.g., -fred instead of -a ).

6.1.2 Options with Arguments

We need to add one more ingredient to make option processing really useful. Recall that many commands have options that take their own arguments. For example, the cut command, on which we relied heavily in Chapter 4 , accepts the option -d with an argument that determines the field delimiter (if it is not the default TAB). To handle this type of option, we just use another shift when we are processing the option.

Assume that, in our bob script, the option -b requires its own argument. Here is the modified code that will process it:

while [[ $1 = -* ]]; do
    case $1 in 
	-a ) 

process option -a

 ;;
	-b ) 

process option -b

 
	     

$2 is the option's argument


	     shift ;;
	-c ) 

process option -c

 ;;
	*  ) print 'usage: bob [-a] [-b barg] [-c] args...'
	     return 1
    esac
    shift
done


normal processing of arguments...

6.1.3 getopts

So far, we have a complete, though still constrained, way of handling command-line options. The above code does not allow a user to combine arguments with a single dash, e.g., -abc instead of -a -b -c . It also doesn't allow one to specify arguments to options without a space in between, e.g., -barg in addition to -b arg. [1]

[1] Although most UNIX commands allow this, it is actually contrary to the Command Syntax Standard Rules in intro (1) of the User's Manual .

The shell provides a built-in way to deal with multiple complex options without these constraints. The built-in command getopts [2] can be used as the condition of the while in an option-processing loop. Given a specification of which options are valid and which require their own arguments, it sets up the body of the loop to process each option in turn.

[2] getopts replaces the external command getopt(1) , used in Bourne shell programming; getopts is better integrated into the shell's syntax and runs more efficiently. C programmers will recognize getopts as very similar to the standard library routine getopt(3) .

getopts takes two arguments. The first is a string that can contain letters and colons. Each letter is a valid option; if a letter is followed by a colon, the option requires an argument. getopts picks options off the command line and assigns each one (without the leading dash) to a variable whose name is getopts ' second argument. As long as there are options left to process, getopts will return exit status 0; when the options are exhausted, it returns exit status 1, causing the while loop to exit.

getopts does a few other things that make option processing easier; we'll encounter them as we examine how to use getopts in the preceding example:

while getopts ":ab:c" opt; do
    case $opt in 
	a  ) 

process option -a

 ;;
	b  ) 

process option -b

 
	     

$OPTARG is the option's argument

 ;;
	c  ) 

process option -c

 ;;
	\? ) print 'usage: bob [-a] [-b barg] [-c] args...'
	     return 1
    esac
done
shift $(($OPTIND - 1))


normal processing of arguments...

The call to getopts in the while condition sets up the loop to accept the options -a , -b , and -c , and specifies that -b takes an argument. (We will explain the : that starts the option string in a moment.) Each time the loop body is executed, it will have the latest option available, without a dash ( - ), in the variable opt .

If the user types an invalid option, getopts normally prints an unfortunate error message (of the form cmd: getopts: o bad option(s) ) and sets opt to ? . However-now here's an obscure kludge-if you begin the option letter string with a colon, getopts won't print the message. [3] We recommend that you specify the colon and provide your own error message in a case that handles ? , as above.

[3] Evidently this was deemed necessary because you can't redirect getopts ' standard error output to /dev/null ; the result is (usually) a core dump.

We have modified the code in the case construct to reflect what getopts does. But notice that there are no more shift statements inside the while loop: getopts does not rely on shift s to keep track of where it is. It is unnecessary to shift arguments over until getopts is finished, i.e., until the while loop exits.

If an option has an argument, getopts stores it in the variable OPTARG , which can be used in the code that processes the option.

The one shift statement left is after the while loop. getopts stores in the variable OPTIND the number of the next argument to be processed; in this case, that's the number of the first (non-option) command-line argument. For example, if the command line were bob -ab pete , then $OPTIND would be "2". If it were bob -a -b pete , then $OPTIND would be "3".

The expression $(($OPTIND - 1)) is an arithmetic expression (as we'll see later in this chapter) equal to $OPTIND minus 1. This value is used as the argument to shift . The result is that the correct number of arguments are shifted out of the way, leaving the "real" arguments as $1 , $2 , etc.

Before we continue, now is a good time to summarize everything that getopts does:

1. Its first argument is a string containing all valid option letters. If an option requires an argument, a colon follows its letter in the string. An initial colon causes getopts not to print an error message when the user gives an invalid option.

2. Its second argument is the name of a variable that will hold each option letter (without any leading dash) as it is processed.

3. If an option takes an argument, the argument is stored in the variable OPTARG .

4. The variable OPTIND contains a number equal to the next command-line argument to be processed. After getopts is done, it equals the number of the first "real" argument.

The advantages of getopts are that it minimizes extra code necessary to process options and fully supports the standard UNIX option syntax (as specified in intro(1) of the User's Manual ).

As a more concrete example, let's return to our C compiler front end (Task 4-2). So far, we have given our script the ability to process C source files (ending in .c ), assembly code files ( .s ), and object code files ( .o ). Here is the latest version of the script:

objfiles=""
for filename in "$@"; do
    case $filename in 
        *.c ) 
            objname=${filename%.c}.o
            compile $filename $objname ;;
        *.s )
            objname=${filename%.s}.o
            assemble $filename $objname ;;
        *.o ) 
            objname=$filename ;;
        *   ) 
            print "error: $filename is not a source or object file."
            return 1 ;;
    esac
    objfiles="$objfiles $objname"
done
ld $objfiles

Now we can give the script the ability to handle options. To know what options we'll need, we'll have to discuss further what compilers do.