This chapter continues in the tradition of staying as independent of specific hardware as possible. However, where specific examples are needed, we use simple digital I/O ports (like the standard PC parallel port) to show how the I/O instructions work, and normal frame-buffer video memory to show memory-mapped I/O.

At the hardware level, there is no conceptual difference between memory regions and I/O regions: both of them are accessed by asserting electrical signals on the address bus and control bus (i.e., the read and writesignals)[31] and by reading from or writing to the data bus.

While some CPU manufacturers implement a single address space in their chips, some others decided that peripheral devices are different from memory and therefore deserve a separate address space. Some processors (most notably the x86 family) have separate readand write electrical lines for I/O ports, and special CPU instructions to access ports.

Because peripheral devices are built to fit a peripheral bus, and the most popular I/O buses are modeled on the personal computer, even processors that do not have a separate address space for I/O ports must fake reading and writing I/O ports when accessing some peripheral devices, usually by means of external chipsets or extra circuitry in the CPU core. The latter solution is only common within tiny processors meant for embedded use.

For the same reason, Linux implements the concept of I/O ports on all computer platforms it runs on, even on platforms where the CPU implements a single address space. The implementation of port access sometimes depends on the specific make and model of the host computer (because different models use different chipsets to map bus transactions into memory address space).

Even if the peripheral bus has a separate address space for I/O ports, not all devices map their registers to I/O ports. While use of I/O ports is common for ISA peripheral boards, most PCI devices map registers into a memory address region. This I/O memory approach is generally preferred because it doesn't require use of special-purpose processor instructions; CPU cores access memory much more efficiently, and the compiler has much more freedom in register allocation and addressing-mode selection when accessing memory.

I/O Registers and Conventional Memory

The main difference between I/O registers and RAM is that I/O operations have side effects, while memory operations have none: the only effect of a memory write is storing a value to a location, and a memory read returns the last value written there. Because memory access speed is so critical to CPU performance, the no-side-effects case has been optimized in several ways: values are cached and read/write instructions are reordered.

The compiler can cache data values into CPU registers without writing them to memory, and even if it stores them, both write and read operations can operate on cache memory without ever reaching physical RAM. Reordering can also happen both at compiler level and at hardware level: often a sequence of instructions can be executed more quickly if it is run in an order different from that which appears in the program text, for example, to prevent interlocks in the RISC pipeline. On CISC processors, operations that take a significant amount of time can be executed concurrently with other, quicker ones.

These optimizations are transparent and benign when applied to conventional memory (at least on uniprocessor systems), but they can be fatal to correct I/O operations because they interfere with those "side effects'' that are the main reason why a driver accesses I/O registers. The processor cannot anticipate a situation in which some other process (running on a separate processor, or something happening inside an I/O controller) depends on the order of memory access. A driver must therefore ensure that no caching is performed and no read or write reordering takes place when accessing registers: the compiler or the CPU may just try to outsmart you and reorder the operations you request; the result can be strange errors that are very difficult to debug.

A typical usage of memory barriers in a device driver may have this sort of form:

 writel(dev->registers.addr, io_destination_address); writel(dev->registers.size, io_size); writel(dev->registers.operation, DEV_READ); wmb(); writel(dev->registers.control, DEV_GO); 

In this case, it is important to be sure that all of the device registers controlling a particular operation have been properly set prior to telling it to begin. The memory barrier will enforce the completion of the writes in the necessary order.

It is worth noting that most of the other kernel primitives dealing with synchronization, such as spinlock and atomic_t operations, also function as memory barriers.

 #define set_mb(var, value)  do {var = value; mb();}  while 0 #define set_wmb(var, value) do {var = value; wmb();} while 0 #define set_rmb(var, value) do {var = value; rmb();} while 0 

Where appropriate, <asm/system.h> defines these macros to use architecture-specific instructions that accomplish the task more quickly.

 #include <linux/ioport.h> int check_region(unsigned long start, unsigned long len); struct resource *request_region(unsigned long start,         unsigned long len, char *name); void release_region(unsigned long start, unsigned long len); 

NOTE: From now on, when we use unsigned without further type specifications, we are referring to an architecture-dependent definition whose exact nature is not relevant. The functions are almost always portable because the compiler automatically casts the values during assignment -- their being unsigned helps prevent compile-time warnings. No information is lost with such casts as long as the programmer assigns sensible values to avoid overflow. We'll stick to this convention of "incomplete typing'' for the rest of the chapter.

Note that no 64-bit port I/O operations are defined. Even on 64-bit architectures, the port address space uses a 32-bit (maximum) data path.

The functions just described are primarily meant to be used by device drivers, but they can also be used from user space, at least on PC-class computers. The GNU C library defines them in <sys/io.h>. The following conditions should apply in order for inb and friends to be used in user-space code:

If the host platform has no ioperm and no iopl system calls, user space can still access I/O ports by using the /dev/port device file. Note, though, that the meaning of the file is very platform specific, and most likely not useful for anything but the PC.

The sample sources misc-progs/inp.c and misc-progs/outp.c are a minimal tool for reading and writing ports from the command line, in user space. They expect to be installed under multiple names (i.e., inpb, inpw, and inpl and will manipulate byte, word, or long ports depending on which name was invoked by the user. They use /dev/port if ioperm is not present.

The programs can be made setuid root, if you want to live dangerously and play with your hardware without acquiring explicit privileges.

String Operations

The prototypes for string functions are the following:

Pausing I/O

Platform Dependencies

Other platform dependencies arise from basic structural differences in the processors and thus are unavoidable. We won't go into detail about the differences, because we assume that you won't be writing a device driver for a particular system without understanding the underlying hardware. Instead, the following is an overview of the capabilities of the architectures that are supported by version 2.4 of the kernel:

The curious reader can extract more information from the io.h files, which sometimes define a few architecture-specific functions in addition to those we describe in this chapter. Be warned that some of these files are rather difficult reading, however.

It's interesting to note that no processor outside the x86 family features a different address space for ports, even though several of the supported families are shipped with ISA and/or PCI slots (and both buses implement different I/O and memory address spaces).

Moreover, some processors (most notably the early Alphas) lack instructions that move one or two bytes at a time.[34] Therefore, their peripheral chipsets simulate 8-bit and 16-bit I/O accesses by mapping them to special address ranges in the memory address space. Thus, an inb and an inw instruction that act on the same port are implemented by two 32-bit memory reads that operate on different addresses. Fortunately, all of this is hidden from the device driver writer by the internals of the macros described in this section, but we feel it's an interesting feature to note. If you want to probe further, look for examples in include/asm-alpha/core_lca.h.

The actual implementation and software interface of such I/O ports varies from system to system. Most of the time I/O pins are controlled by two I/O locations: one that allows selecting what pins are used as input and what pins are used as output, and one in which you can actually read or write logic levels. Sometimes, however, things are even simpler and the bits are hardwired as either input or output (but, in this case, you don't call them "general-purpose I/O'' anymore); the parallel port found on all personal computers is one such not-so-general-purpose I/O port. Either way, the I/O pins are usable by the sample code we introduce shortly.

An Overview of the Parallel Port

The parallel interface, in its minimal configuration (we will overlook the ECP and EPP modes) is made up of three 8-bit ports. The PC standard starts the I/O ports for the first parallel interface at 0x378, and for the second at 0x278. The first port is a bidirectional data register; it connects directly to pins 2 through 9 on the physical connector. The second port is a read-only status register; when the parallel port is being used for a printer, this register reports several aspects of printer status, such as being online, out of paper, or busy. The third port is an output-only control register, which, among other things, controls whether interrupts are enabled.

WARNING: The parallel connector is not isolated from the computer's internal circuitry, which is useful if you want to connect logic gates directly to the port. But you have to be careful to do the wiring correctly; the parallel port circuitry is easily damaged when you play with your own custom circuitry unless you add optoisolators to your circuit. You can choose to use plug-in parallel ports if you fear you'll damage your motherboard.

A Sample Driver

For short to work on your system, it must have free access to the underlying hardware device (by default, the parallel interface); thus, no other driver may have allocated it. Most modern distributions set up the parallel port drivers as modules that are loaded only when needed, so contention for the I/O addresses is not usually a problem. If, however, you get a "can't get I/O address" error from short (on the console or in the system log file), some other driver has probably already taken the port. A quick look at /proc/ioportswill usually tell you which driver is getting in the way. The same caveat applies to other I/O devices if you are not using the parallel interface.

Note that you cannot just connect a printer to the parallel port and see data sent to short. This driver implements simple access to the I/O ports and does not perform the handshake that printers need to operate on the data.

If you are going to view parallel data by soldering LEDs to a D-type connector, we suggest that you not use pins 9 and 10, because we'll be connecting them together later to run the sample code shown in Chapter 9, "Interrupt Handling".

As far as short is concerned, /dev/short0 writes to and reads from the eight-bit port located at the I/O address base (0x378 unless changed at load time). /dev/short1writes to the eight-bit port located at base + 1, and so on up to base + 7.

The actual output operation performed by /dev/short0 is based on a tight loop using outb. A memory barrier instruction is used to ensure that the output operation actually takes place and is not optimized away.

  while (count--) {     outb(*(ptr++), address);     wmb(); } 

You can run the following command to light your LEDs:

 echo  -n "any string"  > /dev/short0 

Each LED monitors a single bit of the output port. Remember that only the last character written remains steady on the output pins long enough to be perceived by your eyes. For that reason, we suggest that you prevent automatic insertion of a trailing newline by passing the -n option to echo.

 dd if=/dev/short0 bs=1 count=1 | od -t x1 

To demonstrate the use of all the I/O instructions, there are three variations of each short device: /dev/short0 performs the loop just shown, /dev/short0p uses outb_p and inb_p in place of the "fast'' functions, and /dev/short0s uses the string instructions. There are eight such devices, from short0 to short7. Although the PC parallel interface has only three ports, you may need more of them if using a different I/O device to run your tests.

I/O memory is simply a region of RAM-like locations that the device makes available to the processor over the bus. This memory can be used for a number of purposes, such as holding video data or Ethernet packets, as well as implementing device registers that behave just like I/O ports (i.e., they have side effects associated with reading and writing them).

The way used to access I/O memory depends on the computer architecture, bus, and device being used, though the principles are the same everywhere. The discussion in this chapter touches mainly on ISA and PCI memory, while trying to convey general information as well. Although access to PCI memory is introduced here, a thorough discussion of PCI is deferred to Chapter 15, "Overview of Peripheral Buses".

Whether or not ioremap is required to access I/O memory, direct use of pointers to I/O memory is a discouraged practice. Even though (as introduced in "I/O Ports and I/O Memory") I/O memory is addressed like normal RAM at hardware level, the extra care outlined in "I/O Registers and Conventional Memory" suggests avoiding normal pointers. The wrapper functions used to access I/O memory are both safe on all platforms and optimized away whenever straight pointer dereferencing can perform the operation.

Therefore, even though dereferencing a pointer works (for now) on the x86, failure to use the proper macros will hinder the portability and readability of the driver.

 int check_mem_region(unsigned long start, unsigned long len); void request_mem_region(unsigned long start, unsigned long len,  char *name); void release_mem_region(unsigned long start, unsigned long len); 

The start argument to pass to the functions is the physical address of the memory region, before any remapping takes place. The functions would normally be used in a manner such as the following:

 if (check_mem_region(mem_addr, mem_size)) {     printk("drivername: memory already in use\n");     return -EBUSY; }     request_mem_region(mem_addr, mem_size, "drivername");      [...]      release_mem_region(mem_addr, mem_size);   

Directly Mapped Memory

In modern versions of the kernel, these functions are available across all architectures. The implementation will vary, however; on some they are macros that expand to pointer operations, and on others they are real functions. As a driver writer, however, you need not worry about how they work, as long as you use them.

Reusing short for I/O Memory

For example, this is how we used short to light the debug LEDs on a MIPS development board:

 mips.root# 
./short_load use_mem=1 base=0xb7ffffc0
 mips.root# 
echo -n 7 > /dev/short0

Use of short for I/O memory is the same as it is for I/O ports; however, since no pausing or string instructions exist for I/O memory, access to /dev/short0p and /dev/short0s performs the same operation as /dev/short0.

The following fragment shows the loop used by short in writing to a memory location:

  while (count--) {     writeb(*(ptr++), address);     wmb(); } 

Note the use of a write memory barrier here. Because writeb likely turns into a direct assignment on many architectures, the memory barrier is needed to ensure that the writes happen in the expected order.

Software-Mapped I/O Memory

Once equipped with ioremap (and iounmap), a device driver can access any I/O memory address, whether it is directly mapped to virtual address space or not. Remember, though, that these addresses should not be dereferenced directly; instead, functions like readb should be used. We could thus arrange short to work with both MIPS I/O memory and the more common ISA/PCI x86 memory by equipping the module with ioremap/iounmap calls whenever the use_mem parameter is set.

Before we show how short calls the functions, we'd better review the prototypes of the functions and introduce a few details that we passed over in the previous chapter.

The functions are called according to the following definition:

 #include <asm/io.h> void *ioremap(unsigned long phys_addr, unsigned long size); void *ioremap_nocache(unsigned long phys_addr, unsigned long size); void iounmap(void * addr); 

Another important feature of ioremap is the different behavior of the 2.0 version with respect to later ones. Under Linux 2.0, the function (called, remember, vremap at the time) refused to remap any non-page-aligned memory region. This was a sensible choice, since at CPU level everything happens with page-sized granularity. However, sometimes you need to map small regions of I/O registers whose (physical) address is not page aligned. To fit this new need, version 2.1.131 and later of the kernel are able to remap unaligned addresses.

Our short module, in order to be backward portable to version 2.0 and to be able to access non-page-aligned registers, includes the following code instead of calling ioremap directly:

  /* Remap a not (necessarily) aligned port region */ void *short_remap(unsigned long phys_addr) {     /* The code comes mainly from arch/any/mm/ioremap.c */     unsigned long offset, last_addr, size;      last_addr = phys_addr + SHORT_NR_PORTS - 1;     offset = phys_addr & ~PAGE_MASK;          /* Adjust the begin and end to remap a full page */     phys_addr &= PAGE_MASK;     size = PAGE_ALIGN(last_addr) - phys_addr;     return ioremap(phys_addr, size) + offset; }  /* Unmap a region obtained with short_remap */ void short_unmap(void *virt_add) {     iounmap((void *)((unsigned long)virt_add & PAGE_MASK)); } 

ISA Memory Below 1 MB

Although ISA I/O memory exists only in x86-class computers, we think it's worth spending a few words and a sample driver on it.

We are not going to discuss PCI memory in this chapter, since it is the cleanest kind of I/O memory: once you know the physical address you can simply remap and access it. The "problem'' with PCI I/O memory is that it doesn't lend itself to a working example for this chapter, because we can't know in advance the physical addresses your PCI memory is mapped to, nor whether it's safe to access either of those ranges. We chose to describe the ISA memory range because it's both less clean and more suitable to running sample code.

The module supplements the functionality of short by giving access to the whole 384-KB memory space and by showing all the different I/O functions. It features four device nodes that perform the same task using different data transfer functions. The silly devices act as a window over I/O memory, in a way similar to /dev/mem. You can read and write data, and lseek to an arbitrary I/O memory address.

Because silly provides access to ISA memory, it must start by mapping the physical ISA addresses into kernel virtual addresses. In the early days of the Linux kernel, one could simply assign a pointer to an ISA address of interest, then dereference it directly. In the modern world, though, we must work with the virtual memory system and remap the memory range first. This mapping is done with ioremap, as explained earlier for short:

  #define ISA_BASE    0xA0000 #define ISA_MAX    0x100000  /* for general memory access */      /* this line appears in silly_init */     io_base = ioremap(ISA_BASE, ISA_MAX - ISA_BASE); 

ioremap returns a pointer value that can be used with readb and the other functions explained in the section "Directly Mapped Memory".

Let's look back at our sample module to see how these functions might be used. /dev/sillyb, featuring minor number 0, accesses I/O memory with readb and writeb. The following code shows the implementation for read, which makes the address range 0xA0000-0xFFFFF available as a virtual file in the range 0-0x5FFFF. The read function is structured as a switch statement over the different access modes; here is the sillyb case:

  case M_8:    while (count) {       *ptr = readb(add);       add++; count--; ptr++;   }   break; 

The next two devices are /dev/sillyw (minor number 1) and /dev/sillyl (minor number 2). They act like /dev/sillyb, except that they use 16-bit and 32-bit functions. Here's the writeimplementation of sillyl, again part of a switch:

  case M_32:    while (count >= 4) {       writel(*(u32 *)ptr, add);       add+=4; count-=4; ptr+=4;   }   break; 

The last device is /dev/sillycp (minor number 3), which uses the memcpy_*io functions to perform the same task. Here's the core of its readimplementation:

  case M_memcpy:   memcpy_fromio(ptr, add, count);   break; 

  iounmap(io_base); 

isa_readb and Friends

Probing for ISA Memory

When using ISA memory-mapped devices, the driver writer often ignores where relevant I/O memory is located in the physical address space, since the actual address is usually assigned by the user among a range of possible addresses. Or it may be necessary simply to see if a device is present at a given address or not.

The skull sample source shows a way to deal with such memory, but since skull is not related to any physical device, it just prints information about the 640 KB to 1 MB memory region and then exits. However, the code used to analyze memory is worth describing, since it shows how memory probes can be done.

  unsigned char oldval, newval; /* values read from memory   */ unsigned long flags;          /* used to hold system flags */ unsigned long add, i; void *base;      /* Use ioremap to get a handle on our region */ base = ioremap(ISA_REGION_BEGIN, ISA_REGION_END - ISA_REGION_BEGIN); base -= ISA_REGION_BEGIN;  /* Do the offset once */      /* probe all the memory hole in 2-KB steps */ for (add = ISA_REGION_BEGIN; add < ISA_REGION_END; add += STEP) {    /*     * Check for an already allocated region.     */    if (check_mem_region (add, 2048)) {           printk(KERN_INFO "%lx: Allocated\n", add);           continue;    }    /*     * Read and write the beginning of the region and see what happens.     */    save_flags(flags);     cli();    oldval = readb (base + add);  /* Read a byte */    writeb (oldval^0xff, base + add);    mb();    newval = readb (base + add);    writeb (oldval, base + add);    restore_flags(flags);     if ((oldval^newval) == 0xff) {  /* we reread our change: it's RAM */        printk(KERN_INFO "%lx: RAM\n", add);        continue;    }    if ((oldval^newval) != 0) {  /* random bits changed: it's empty */        printk(KERN_INFO "%lx: empty\n", add);        continue;    } 	    /*     * Expansion ROM (executed at boot time by the BIOS)     * has a signature where the first byte is 0x55, the second 0xaa,     * and the third byte indicates the size of such ROM     */    if ( (oldval == 0x55) && (readb (base + add + 1) == 0xaa)) {        int size = 512 * readb (base + add + 2);        printk(KERN_INFO "%lx: Expansion ROM, %i bytes\n",               add, size);        add += (size & ~2048) - 2048; /* skip it */        continue;    } 	    /*     * If the tests above failed, we still don't know if it is ROM or     * empty. Since empty memory can appear as 0x00, 0xff, or the low     * address byte, we must probe multiple bytes: if at least one of     * them is different from these three values, then this is ROM     * (though not boot ROM).     */    printk(KERN_INFO "%lx: ", add);    for (i=0; i<5; i++) {        unsigned long radd = add + 57*(i+1);  /* a "random" value */        unsigned char val = readb (base + radd);        if (val && val != 0xFF && val != ((unsigned long) radd&0xFF))           break;    }        printk("%s\n", i==5 ? "empty" : "ROM"); } 

Similarly, not all of the port-access functions (inb and friends) were supported on all architectures in older kernels. The string functions, in particular, tended to be absent. We don't provide the missing functions in our sysdep.h facility: it won't be an easy task to perform cleanly and most likely is not worth the effort, given the hardware dependency of those functions.

Unfortunately, while vremap worked just like ioremap for providing access to "high'' memory (such as that on PCI cards), it did refuse to remap the ISA memory ranges. Back in those days, access to this memory was done via direct pointers, so there was no need to remap that address space. Thus, a more complete solution to implement ioremap for Linux 2.0 running on the x86 platform is as follows:

  extern inline void *ioremap(unsigned long phys_addr, unsigned long size) {     if (phys_addr >= 0xA0000 && phys_addr + size <= 0x100000)         return (void *)phys_addr;     return vremap(phys_addr, size); }  extern inline void iounmap(void *addr) {     if ((unsigned long)addr >= 0xA0000             && (unsigned long)addr < 0x100000)         return;     vfree(addr); } 

If you include sysdep.h in your drivers you'll be able to use ioremap with no problems even when accessing ISA memory.

Allocation of memory regions (check_mem_regionand friends) was introduced in kernel 2.3.17. In the 2.0 and 2.2 kernels, there was no central facility for the allocation of memory resources. You can use the macros anyway if you include sysdep.h because it nullifies the three macros when compiling for 2.0 or 2.2.